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 Thailand
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This report was prepared by |
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5. Hot spots 6. Bright spots 8. References / Related internet links |
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1. Country overview 1.1 Geography and administrative units 1.3 Climate 1. > top |
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1.1
Geography and administrative units
[Map 1.1.1: Outline Map] [Map 1.1.2: Administrative Boundary Map of Thailand] 1.1 > 1.
Thailand has a population
of about 62.3 million, the average population density is around
116.7 persons/km2 in 1996 and has increases to 121.4
persons/km2 in 2000. The average population growth is
around 0.89 %. (Figure
1.2.1) and (Figure
1.2.2) illustrated population by age group in
2000 and population growth 1996-2000.
Real GDP of Thailand
in the last ten years (1990-1999) was 11 % from agriculture, 41.5
% from manufacturing and 47.5 % from service sector. Services became
the biggest sector of real GDP which can be divided into 4 sub-sectors
namely: 1) trade (wholesale and Retail ), 2) tourism, 3) transportation
- communication and 4) financial services. (Figure
1.2.3) From an early dependence
on agriculture, the Thai economy rode high on a strategic mix of
manufacturing and service-based industries. In terms of foreign
exchange, tourism continues to provide the biggest source of revenue
with over 6,000,000 visitors during 1995 (Figure
1.2.4). Other leading earners are textile and garment manufacturing
and, more traditionally, the export of rice. In an era where phrases
such as information Technology' and Globalisation' are now cliches
in their own right, Thailand has all invested heavily in technology,
both as an important tool for development, and in certain areas
such the manufacture of integrated circuits, in establishing its
own manufacturing capability. High technology manufacturing then
represents some 20% of the country's exports (Figure
1.2.4). Growth in the financial
sector has paralleled that of industry and commerce in general with
the establishment in 1990 of the Stock Exchange of Thailand and
the expansion and strengthening of financial institutions. International
investment, particularly in the manufacturing sector, has been substantially
encouraged by the Board of Investment which grants tax concessions
and other privileges to suitable applicants. Up to 1995, the Thai
economy had been growing at a rapid pace, with growth rate ranging
from 8-12% per annum. And Thailand example was often used as a model
that less developed countries should try to follow. Looking back
in hindsight, it could be said that there was over confidence in
the economy's ability to continue to grow rapidly, and looming problems,
such as massive debt creation and possible loss of competitive advantages
in labor intensive manufactured products, were not taken serious
enough. Other problems such as the risk in large inflows of short
term capital in the past, and over investment in real estate leading
to substantial over supply with implications on the quality of financial
institutions' loan, make the task of managing the situation even
more difficult. However, concrete improvements are needed over coming
few years, as it is unlikely that the country can sustain the level
of current account deficit and inflation that it had experienced
over the past couple of years without adverse impact on overall
confidence in the country's macro economic stability. The situation
will need to be carefully monitored and effective measures will
be needed from the authorities. (Figure
1.2.5) illustrates the employment statistics in 1998. It shows
that agriculture is still a leading sector. The unemployment rate
is 4.36 % in 1998 which was the first year of Asian economic turbulence,
compared with the previous rates of 1.54% in 1996 and 1.51% in 1997.
In 1997, the Thai economy came to a crashing halt ending over a decade
of rapid economic growth. Thailand was the first of the Asian Tigers
(South Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, and
the Philippines) to fully feel the aftermath of the US dollar rising
above the rates of many other world currencies in 1995. Thailand's form
of currency, the baht, was pegged against the dollar for exchange rate
purposes; as the dollar rose in value as did the baht causing Thai exports
to rise in price and become expensive. As Thai export products increased,
they were no longer competitive and consumers begin to look for cheaper
goods; however, in order to keep the Thai economy favorable for foreign
investment the value of the baht could not be diminished. Thai businessmen
were sure the value of the dollar would decrease soon enough but instead
their economy crashed on July 2nd,1997 devaluing the baht to more than
30 percent against the dollar. (World Book 1999)
The effects of the baht falling were felt immediately in the Philippines,
where lending rates rose only to be followed by rifts in Malaysia. On July
14th, the Philippines asked for IMF support in protecting Mexico from what
was soon to become a crisis. That same day Malaysia abandoned its protection
of the ringitt, it's own currency. The crisis comes full circle on July 24th
when currencies throughout Asia plummet to the ground. Thailand is the first
of the "Asian Tigers" to ask for assistance from the IMF. They receive their
bailout on August 11th, 1997 of $16-US billion ($1.5 US billion came from the
World Bank) in terms that the Thai Government raise taxes, cut spending, and
keep inflation below 9 percent.
Until 1997 when the Asian Economic Crisis hit, Thailand had an average GDP
growth rate of 8.9 in 1994; this drastically fell in 1997 to -0.04. The scare
finally occurred in 1997, when international banks (who were giving out these
loans to local Thai banks) and money traders came to the view Thailand would
have to devalue its currency and abandon the baht peg with the dollar in order
to stay competitive among export communities. The government resisted, knowing
large companies that had borrowed vast sums would be crippled. Traders begun to
sell local currency in exchange for dollars it was like a run on the bank during
the American Stock Market Crash in 1929.
The World Bank was one of the establishments loaning money to Thailand at its
time of economic growth. Both the IMF and World Bank praised Asia as its
"miracle." The Asia Tigers followed the IMF strategy for economic growth and
development by increasing exports and decreasing trade barriers, which lasted
with success for three decades. This is best shown in the following graph of
Thailand's economic growth rates. However, if Asia chose to follow these guidelines
at one time and still plummeted to the ground economically, one should question
if by following these practices again to overcome debt the same cycle will not
again occur.
During the economic boom, large companies took out vast loans; these loans,
however, were not in baht, Thai's local currency, they were in US dollars.
At the time, US interest rates were lower and due to the baht being pegged
against the dollar Thai firms were making the most economical decisions.
This proved not to be the case when the dollar rose in 1995 sending waves
through Thailand. But many businessmen refused to see the warning signs and
continued to take out loans. Business was carried out on the pretense of buy
now and pay later when the currency rate fluctuated back into place.
The export sector
played a vital role in Thailand's economic recovery in 2000, with
an annual growth rate of 19.5% representing the first two-digit
growth rate in 4 years. In addition, exports as percentage of GDP
also rose from 48.0% in 1999 to 56.8% in 2000. (Figure
1.2.7 and 1.2.9) while Figure 1.2.8
illustrates the GDP of Thailand from 1999-2002 as compare to 1988
price.
Most of Thailand's major exports which grew considerably in value in 2000
were capital intensive industrial goods such as computers & parts, integrated
circuits (IC), vehicles & parts, plastic pellets, radios, TV & parts, iron &
steel products, chemical products. Labor intensive industrial goods with strong
growth were garments, while agricultural goods which increased substantially
in export value were rubber, chilled & frozen shrimps, etc. IC, which was
Thailand's second-ranking export earner, registered a high growth rate in all
of Thailand's major export markets, namely, USA, ASEAN, EU and Japan. Meanwhile,
export of computers & parts, which was Thailand's most important export item,
grew substantially in the Japanese market but declined in the other 3 markets.
Export of vehicles & parts to ASEAN rose considerably but increased only slightly
in the EU and Japanese markets, while the value of export to USA declined.
Thailand's major export market for garments was USA. In 2000 Thai garment export
to USA rose sharply, increased moderately in ASEAN and declined in the Japanese
market. Following a slowdown in 1999, export of electrical appliances, especially
radios, TV & parts, increased in all major export markets, particularly more than
doubling in EU. For iron and steel products, plastic pellets and chemical products,
Thailand continued to enlarge its market share significantly in all major export
markets, except for plastic pellets exports to EU which declined continuously from
1999.
More than 70% of Thai exports relied on four major export markets, namely, USA,
ASEAN, EU and Japan. In 2000, the growth of Thai exports in all major export
markets was the crucial factor that constituted a high growth in total exports
of 19.5%. Moreover, export diversification to five emerging markets, including
the Middle East, Africa, South Asia, South America, and Eastern Europe, became
more successful.
Especially in South Asia and South America, the value of exports to each
market grew by more than 40% in 2000.
Agriculture in Thailand
in 1999 declined to 10 % of GDP. The total production of major agriculture
sectors (fishery, rubber and rice) for the period of 1994-1998 shows
an increasing trend. Currently, the agricultural
sector is focused on export. In 1998, fishery production consisted
of 12.5% of export earning, compared with that of rice 8.7% and
rubber 5.5%. Other important commodities are cassava, sugar and
livestock products. The staple food crop is rice, with the farm
value of 4100 million US$ in 1997. Trend of major agriculture
production is illustrated in (Figure 1.2.12).
The Office of Agricultural
Economics of the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives Thailand
is appointed as National Focal Point for establishing national food
security information system as recommended by FAO abiding by Rome
Declaration and World Food Summit Plan of Action. At the regional
level, FAO, in collaboration with ASEAN Secretarial and ASEAN Food
Security Reserve Board (AFSRB) has followed up the working progress
and requested the ASEAN member countries to temporarily adopt the
food security information system framework as presented in the AFSRB
meeting. The AFSRB has currently collected information of 4 major
commodities including rice, maize, sugar and soy bean. Present status
of food production The major food products
from agricultural sector are rice, upland food crops, vegetables,
fruits, livestock products and fishery products while the minor
products are tea and coffee. Rice production in 1994 increased by
18 % as compared to 1993 and in 1997 increased by 33 % as compared
to 1996. Upland food crops production in 1994 also increased 36
% as compared to 1993 and in 1997 increased by 11 % as compared
to 1996 while vegetables and fruits slightly increased as from 1993-1997.
Fishery products (shrimps and canned seafood) and livestock products
in 1997 increased 30% and 62 % as compared to 1993 respectively
which indicate a new trend in food production. (Table
1.2.2)
shows farm value in 1993-1997 in million Us $.
RICE PRODUCTION POLICIES
The 1998/99 Paddy
Measures 1. To shore up the
paddy price with the following projects: 1.1 Paddy Mortgage
Program of BAAC : The principle government program used to support
farm prices is the Paddy Mortgage Program administered by the Bank
of Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives (BAAC). Rice farmers
can mortgage their paddy for a 3 percent inter loan valued at 90
percent of government target prices. Different target prices are
set for paddy based on the percentage of broken rice (Table
1.2.3) 1.2 Project on the
Cooperative's Integrated Loans for Production and Marketing Services
: The provincial cooperative federations provide loans to buy paddy
from the cooperative members. The primary paddy price is set at
least equal to the target price. After the paddy is milled and sold
to the local people, the net revenue will be proportionally divided
to payback to members in relation to the amount of paddy sold to
cooperatives. 2. Improvement of
rice production efficiency 2.1 Procurement of
cheap fertilizer for the farmers: Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives
(MOAC) has set up a fertilizer procurement program and sells the
procured fertilizers to the farmers at prices lower than the market.
In 1998, 700,000 metric tons of fertilizers were provided to paddy
farmers at 10 percent lower than market price and the government
absorbed the transport cost from Bangkok to the Production areas.
The farmers can buy fertilizers on credit terms free of interest
if payment is made within 6 months. Payment within 6 - 9 months
costs 9 percent interest, and within 12 months, 12.5 percent per
year. 2.2 Seed distribution
program: It is designed to select farmers institutions to produce
and sell cheaply the high-yielding seeds; and government will compensate
part of the seed production cost in an attempt to make it widespread
to encourage farming efficiency and farmers' income at the same
time. Estimated major commodities'
supply and utilization are explained in Table
1.2.4.
2.3 Provision of
the low-interest credit from BAAC to the individual farmers and
farmers institutions for the production investment purpose.
[Figure 1.2.1: Population by Age Groups, 2000] [Figure 1.2.2: Population Growth 1996 - 2000] [Figure 1.2.3: Employment by Sectors] [Figure 1.2.4: National Income Accounts GDP 1994 - 1998] [Figure 1.2.5: Export products of Thailand in 1998] [Figure 1.2.6: Tourist Status of Thailand] [Figure 1.2.7: Thailand's export as percentage of GDP from 1996-2000] [Figure 1.2.8: GDP of Thailand from 1999-2002 as compare to 1988 price] [Figure 1.2.9:Thailand's total export 1996-2000] [Figure 1.2.10:High growth major export of Thailand in 2000] [Figure 1.2.11:Thailand's major export markets in 2000] [Figure 1.2.12:Trend of major agriculture production] [Table 1.2.1: GDP of Thailand from 1999-2002 as compare to 1988 price] [Table 1.2.2: Trend in food production] [Table 1.2.3: Target prices for paddy rice] [Table 1.2.4: Estimated Major Commodities' Supply and Utilization] 1.2 > 1.
The climate of Thailand
is tropical, and much influenced by the country's position. The
Indochinese Peninsula is part of the Asian land mass that extrudes
between two great ocean bodies-the South China Sea of the Pacific
Ocean and the Aadaman Sea of the Indian Ocean. While the Peninsular
South is bounded by seas on both its east and west shores, the mainland
part of the country is also in comparatively close proximity to
two large bodies of water-the South China Sea to the east, and the
Andaman Sea plus the Bay of Bengal to the west. The monsoons, resulting
from the Seasonal differences in temperatures between the land mass
and the oceanic body, alternately blow southwesterly and northwesterly
over Thailand. The South and Southeast Asia monsoons are the most
powerful of all monsoons, dominating Thailand's climate. The surrounding
water, as well as the physiographic terrain, again contribute much
to modifying the monsoon effects on various localities of the country. The seasons As a tropical country,
only the wet and dry seasons are succinctly differentiated. This
is especially true in the Peninsular South and the lower mainland
sections. For the upper mainland sections, however, a greater distinction
between temperature differences during the dry season justifies
a broad separation of "summer" and "winter". Such a seasonal change
is the result of monsoon wind directions, interacting with the location
and terrain. - The southwest monsoon
carries moisture from the Indian Ocean, normally from May to mid-October;
but for the upper mainland sections, it is effective from mid-May
to September. Its initial strength correlates with that of the high
pressure center over the Indian Ocean in the Southern hemisphere. - The northeast monsoon
brings in dry and cold air from China, and is normally active from
mid-October to mid-February, sometimes extending into March. It
causes a cool, dry season for the upper mainland section. The eastern
shore of the lower South, however, receives this northeast monsoon
after it has travelled across the South China Sea, picking up moisture
and bringing more rain. Therefore, its wet season is in effect extended,
with even higher precipitation, until January or later. - The switch-over
or inter-monsoon period, from mid-February to mid-May, coincides
with the sun's position moving northward across the equator. Increased
heat absorption by the land mass and much reduced rain produces
a very hot climate, especially for the upper mainland sections.
The wind can be very variable, with occasional storms. The lower
section often receives southerly winds coming up from the Gulf,
sometimes referred to as a southeast monsoon, making it generally
cooler than the upper mainland section. Precipitation A general observation
is that the further away from the sea in Thailand, the less the
precipitation. Interacting with the monsoons, location and terrain
exert a considerable influence. Storms also provide additional precipitation
inputs. - Thailand's location
creates two general effects. First, the upper mainland section is
exposed to a shorter period of the southeast monsoon, by approximately
one month. The total for the North is therefore no greater than
for the Northeast. Second, the lower east coast of the South has
an extended wet season, because of the north east monsoon that picks
up moisture over the South China Sea well into January or February.
The same northeast monsoon passing over the rest of the country
will not have picked up that moisture and is therefore dry and cold. - The terrain can
add to or subtract from what would be considered the "normal" share
of precipitation. There are at least four areas where pronounced
orographic effects are evident: the west coast of the middle South;
the southeast corner of the Southeast coast, the leeward area of
the west mountains; and the leeward area of the Phetchabun and Dong
Phrayayen ranges. The first two areas receive very heavy precipitation
(near 4,000 millimeters), being on the windward side of high mountains
with, perhaps, still very good forest cover. The latter two areas
do not receive their fair share (around 1,000 millimeters or less),
since much of the moisture has been trapped on the windward side
of the mountains, and they are the areas whose soil is relatively
fertile for a number of crops. - There are two types
of storms affecting the annual precipitation of certain areas. Temperature A Two characteristic
trends in temperature variation fit two broad areas of Thailand. - The upper mainland
section covers the North, Northeast, Southeast, West and Central,
with the exception of areas adjacent to the seashore. The range
of mean maximum temperatures will be 33o-38oC.
The highest-ever temperature in April between 1951 and 1999 was
44.5o5C. Higher maximum temperatures normally occur in
April due to greater solar absorption, less wind and less cloud
cover. Cloud cover and rain seem to exert greater influence in depressing
the maximum temperature. The Northeast benefits least from extensive
cloud cover, and night radiation is strong. The daily range of temperatures
will be 8o-12oC, but a wide range of as much
as 20o during "the cold months" may be observed. Lower
minimum temperatures occur in December and January, due to the northeast
monsoon and heat radiation losses, with the mean minimum at 10 oC.
The upper North and upper Northeast normally will be exposed first
to the very cold and dry northeast monsoon, and experience very
low minimum temperatures. The coldest January temperature recorded
between 1951 and 1999 was 0.1 oC. - The lower section
covers the Peninsular South and mainland shoreline region. Temperatures
are more uniform year-round, with a daily range of about 10 oC.
The mean maximum temperatures in December and in April differ by
about 3 oC in Bangkok, and by only 2o C in
the lower South. The proximity to the sea helps alleviate the temperature
extremes. The extreme maximum temperature registered between 1951
and 1999 was 40 oC, while the minimum temperature was
8.9 oC. Atmospheric pressure Any effect of the
change in atmospheric pressure due to altitude is not readily observable
in Thailand; only two effects may be cited. First, in the mountainous
area above 1,350 meters, the Monsoon Forest will be replaced by
Evergreen Mountain Forest, indicative of lower temperatures. Second,
on a few higher elevation mountain slopes or intermontane basins
the average temperature will be lower than at lower elevations. The atmospheric
pressure changes that considerably influence Thailand's climate
are the high or low pressure centers built up over the distant oceans
or the land mass, and the atmospheric disturbances that breed cyclones
over the oceans. - The high pressure
center over the Indian Ocean, in the Southern hemisphere, affects
the southwest monsoon strength, influencing the amount of precipitation. - The high pressure
center over China, in the Northern hemisphere, influences the northeast
monsoon strength that, in turn, is related to dry weather and low
temperatures over most of Thailand, and to additional precipitation
over the lower east coast in the South. - The high pressure
center built up over the South China Sea influences the "Southeast"
monsoon, or southerly wind, in the Gulf of Thailand during the "switch-over"
period from the northeast to southwest monsoons. It is moist and
warm, so it raises some temperatures and brings occasional rain. - The tropical cyclones
that regularly form over the Pacific or the Indian Oceans at low
latitudes, may pass through or pass by Thailand as a tropical depression,
tropical storm or typhoon, from 3 to 4 times annually. Each can
bring in precipitation over a wide area along its path, the amount
varying from moderate to very heavy. Tropical cyclones
originating in the Indian Ocean can be expected in May, and again
during October to December; those from the Pacific Ocean, may be
expected during August and September over the upper section, and
during October to December over the lower section of the country.
(Map 1.3.1) [Map 1.3.1: Mean annual rainfall, relative humidity, temperature and evapotranspiration in Thailand in last 30 years Map]
1.3 > 1. |
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2. Land resources 2.1 Physiography 2.2 Soils 2.4 Wetlands, mangroves and inland valley bottoms 2.6 Natural hazards 2.8 Land use change 2.10 Environmental Impact of land uses 2. > top |
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The location of Thailand
straddles the area between two mountain systems-the Central Cordillera
and the Cordillera of Annam-two of the four systems that fan out southwards
from the Yunnan Knot, beginning at about 28oN latitude.
The Central Cordillera gives Thailand its mountains in the North and
West, and continues on into the Peninsular South and Malaysia. The
Cordillera of Annam provides the mountains east of Thailand, on the
boundary with Laos and beyond. The wide depression between these two
mountain systems contains the alluvial plains of Chao Phraya and the
Khorat Plain, known more familiarly as the Northeast Plateau or Khorat
Plateau. Structural geology
describes this depression on which Thailand is located as part of
the Yunnan-Malayan geosyncline (also designated as the Burma-Malaya
geosyncline), which has undergone a long series of structural changes.
The evidence suggests that such changes began in the Precambrian period
(570 million years ago), again in the mid-Carboniferous period (220
million years ago), at the end of the Triassic period (190 million
years ago), and toward the end of the Plicocene epoch (1.5 million
years ago), for the latest round. Minor changes continue. Each change
is believed to bring about the orogeny and/or epeirogeny, and metamorphism
responsible for the rich mineral resources deposition in some areas. Plate tectonic theory
places Thailand on an inner perimeter of the Southeast Asia Plate,
which is being compressed from opposite directions by the Indian Plate
to its west and the Philippine Plate to its east. Continuing plate
movements exert immense pressure and generate intense heat, capable
of transfiguring our tranquil land-scape-and the resources underneath.
But on the scale of a single human lifetime, it will be Man himself
that transforms these given resources for the better or for worse. Physiographic
regions of Thailand are prequently indicated and distribution of certain
landforms and soils. These
landforms (Map
2.1.1) comprise
the relief features that are accumulated by either wave, wind or stream
action. They range in age from recent to old Quaternary. 1. Beach and Dune Formations: 2. Active and Farmer
Tidal Flats of recent marine and brackish water deposits: 3. Former Tidal Flats
of older brackish water deposits: 4. Flood Plains of
recent river alluvium: 5. Low Alluvial Terraces
of semi-recent and old alluvium: 6. High Alluvial Terraces
and fans of old alluvium and colluvium: 7. Depressions with
Peat and Muck: 8. Dissected Erosion
Surfaces and Structural Plateaux occurring over rocks: 9. Lava Plateaux and
Volcano Remnants: 10. Limestone Outcrops:
11. Hills and Mountains:
[Map 2.1.1: Main Landforms of Thailand Map] 2.1 > 2.
Soil survey and classification
techniques were first introduced into Thailand in 1935. Initially,
soil survey activity was scattered among different departments of
the Ministry of Agriculture. Later, soil survey and classification
were transferred to the of Land Development Department (LDD), following
its establishment in 1963. The first general
soil map of Thailand was prepared and published in 1953, at a scale
of 1:2,500,000, by R.L. Pendleton, an American advisor to the Department
of Agriculture and Fisheries. The soil units, commonly called "soil
series", shown on the map were limited. These soil units were not
as sophisticated as today's "soil series", as defined in the Soil
Survey Manual (USDA, 1951). They were broad generalizations, usually
on the level of the great soil groups, or of the association of two
or more such groups. The second general
soil map of Thailand,was prepared and published, at a scale of 1:1,2500,000,
by Moormann, and Rojanasoonthon (1968). The map units were based on
the soil classification outlined by Dudal and Moorman, (1963). Twenty-three
basic map units were distinguished. Since 1970,LDD has
adopted the "Soil Taxonomy of the National Cooperative Soil Survey"
developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. All soil series established
in the country were placed into soil families using this classification
system. A revision of the general soil map by Moormann and Rojanasoonthon
(1968) was carried out by the Soil Survey and Classification Division
and was published, at a scale of 1:1,000,000, in 1979. The soil units
shown on the map were great groups and associations of the great groups.
A total of 36 the great groups were recognized in Thailand (Changprai,
1983). LDD published a number
of soil maps at different scales, such as 1:500,000 for the regional
soil maps, 1:100,000 for the provincial soil maps and 1:10,000-20,000
for specific projects. At present, it has completed detailed reconnaissance
soil surveys of the whole country. Provincial soil maps at a scale
of 1:100,000 were published. Currently about 300
soil series have been identified in Thailand. Most probably, well
developed soils are found and they are differentiated on the basis
of USDA Soil Taxonomy into 9 orders namely: Histosols (0.14%), Spodosols
(0.12 %), Oxisols (0.03%), Vertisols (0.81 %), Ultisols (42.13 %),
Mollisols (1.17 %), Alfisols (9.16 %), Inceptisols (9.4 %) , Entisols,
slope complexes, water bodies and others (33.75%). Histosols mostly consist
of Fibrists. Spodosols are mostly Humods whereas Oxisols are Orthox.
Vertisols are mostly Uderts and Usterts while Ultisols are Aquults,
Ustults, Humults and Udults. The Mollisols consists of Aquolls ans
Ustolls. Alfisols are Aqualfs, Ustalfs and Udualfs. Inceptisols are
mainly Aquepts and Tropepts while Entisols are Aquents, Psamments,
Fluvents and Orthents. (Map 2.2.1) [Map
2.2.1: General Soil Map of Thailand] 2.2 > 2.
Agro-ecological zones
(AEZ) in Thaialnd was defined on the basis of climate in relation
to soil moisture availability for crops (Panichapong and Hemsrichart
, 1982). In this system the agro-ecological zones were delimited
according to 2 sets of criteria: (1) variation in moisture availability
as required by main crops, (2) differences in soil/landform and
climate. Four major agro-ecological zones were identified according
to the system see (Map 2.3.1) Agro-ecological
zones I. Low potential
agricultural areas II. Paddy areas III. Upland crops
areas IV. Tree crops areas [Map
2.3.1: Agro-ecological zones of Thailand] 2.3 > 2. 2.4
Wetlands, mangroves and inland valley bottoms Wetlands Wetlands
in Thailand are found to be our ways of living. We have gained a lot
from Wetlands for free particularly for public benefits. Up to now,
most Wetlands have been destroyed and the rest are extremely in critical
situation by: - Increasing of population, which leads to highly requirement
of Wetland for social and economical development. Central and Eastern Region There are 10 water resources in central and the eastern regions which
include 26 provinces, 129,723.25 Sq. Kms. There are 6 international
important level Wetlands that are Bungboraphet, Kwae Yai river system,
Lower central basin, Gulf of Thailand, Krung swamp forest in Chantaburi
and Wetlands around Kao Samroiyod national park. There are 47 national
important level Wetlands that are Wetlands around 18 national parks
(5 waterfalls, 1 beach). Wetlands around 7 national animal reservation
areas (1 River and 1 Swamp). Wetlands around 8 forbidden area for
animal hunting (1 Water reservoir, 1 Swamp, 3 Pastures) 8 rivers,
1 mudflat, 1 beach, 1 bay, 2 pastures and 1 swamp. 2 Wetlands are
needed to be protected, 2 to be retored and 2 to be studied for ecological
controlled i.e. birds species. Southern Region It was divided into West coast and East coast. There are many old
rivers on the East coast therefore more Wetlands can be found than
in the West coast. In the southern part, there are at least 5,478
Wetlands which include the area of 28,465,882 Sq.Km. that is 5.548%
of the area in Thailand. Most Wetlands can be found in Nakhon Sri
Thammarat province. 29 Wetlands are considered to be important for
an international level, 41 Wetlands for national level and 4,088 Wetlands
for local level. They are divided into Coastal System and Water Resource
System. 2 Wetlands are needed to be protected, 1 to be restored and
3 to be studied for biodiversification. North Eastern Region North Estern or what is called the land of plateau begins from Nakhorn
Ratchasima Province. 12 Wetlands are considered to be in national
important level. 2 wetlands are needed to be protected, 1 to be restored
and 2 to be studies for bird migration population. Mangroves In Thailand mangroves occur on the sheltered muddy shores and low-lying
boggy ground of rivers and streams estuaries along the bank of the
gulf of Thailand and in the west and east coast of peninsula. The
total area of mangrove forests in Thailand,estimated using LANDSAT
satellite imagery from 1979 to 1996 had been reduced for several purposes
i.e. aqua-culture, agriculture, mining etc.(Table
2.4.1) Inland Valley bottoms In Thailand, we include Inland Valley bottoms in Flood Plains of
recent river alluvium (Map 2.3.1) [Table 2.4.1:Existing mangrove forest area during 1979-1996] 2.4 > 2.
2.5 > 2.
Natural disasters that frequently occur in Thailand include floods, droughts, tropical storms and forest fires. Whereas earthquakes and landslides occur occasionally. Generally, the sudden onset natural disasters cause the most damage to lives and properties. The rural area is the most vulnerable to disasters because of underdeveloped infrastructure. Moreover, the rural people that are mostly poor agriculturists have no ability to invest resources for reducing their vulnerability to disasters. Major destructive natural disasters are: Flooding Flooding occurs during monsoon season in June-September, bring the most damage of property and claimed lives. During 1975-1990, the damage of over million US $1,216. In 1983, flood in the whole southern region had suffered 14 provinces. The damage of estimated million US $360. Over 400 lives were claimed, approximately 11,422 families or 72,814 individuals were homeless, 17,063 houses were demolished, about 1,499,892 livestock died and lost, and around 265,991 hectares of agricultural area were affected. Flooding in September 2000 brought about the damage of 57,360 hectares of agricultural area which included 53,020 hectares of paddy rice, 3,700 hectares of upland crops and 450 hectares of para rubber and fruit trees and it claimed approximately 40 lives. Overflowing of the Chao Praya river usually occurs in rainy se ason. The most prolonged flood in Bangkok occurred in 1995 for 2 months with the damage over million US $ 400. Droughts Drought annually occurs in dry season during March-April, and they become worse and worse. It is because of water demand from agriculture and industries due to population pressure and economic development. Deforestation in association with soil characteristics and dry climate are mojor problems for drought in Thailand. In 1998 it was reinforced by the El Nino phenomenon. As a consequence, droughts affected the whole country at differential levels. The drought-stricken people suffer water shortage, especially water for drinking, cropping and livestock farming. In 1997 droughts occurred in 63 provinces, affecting 24,804 villages, 3,011,601 families or 14,394,322 individuals, and about 414,313 hectares of agricultural area. Tropical storms Tropical storms associated with floods occur in Thailand during monsoon months of June-November at annual average of 4. The whole country is vulnerable to tropical storms, but the peninsular southern region is the most vulnerable area. Of all tropical storms, the typhoon Gay occurring in 1989 is the most destructive. The typhoon Gay moved inland and crossed the southern region in Chumporn province, causing 602 deaths and property damage at the estimated cost of US $ 480 million. Earthquake A few earthquakes occur in Thailand and all of them are moderate magnitude. In April 1983 an earthquake registering 5.9 Richer scale occurred about 200 km. north of Bangkok. In November 1988 a severe earthquake registering 7.3 on the Richer scale occurred in the southern China. Although the epicenter was over 1,000 km. from Bangkok, it rocked high-rise buildings in the city. This is due to Bangkok stands on deep soft alluvial soil which amplified incoming seismic waves. Landslides Landslides often occur in Thailand as a consequence of heavy rainfall. The most destructive one, triggered by a continuously heavy rainfall, occurred in Nakorn Sri Thammarat province in the southern part of Thailand in 1983. A great deal of land was eroded and conveyed by a huge water flow from the top of the high mountain and then slide down to low-lying land, burying the Phipoun the town located at the foot of the mountain. It caused hundreds of deaths and destroyed large amount of property. Agricultural areas were covered with thick sediment and debris washed. Map 2.5.1 illustrates preliminary risk of landslide in GIS environment by compiling types of rocks, degree of slopes, present land use, soil qualities and annual long term mean rainfall (30 years) (LDD, 2002). See map 2.5.1 Forest fires Forest fires in Thailand are generally by people who encroach the forest areas and burn for cropping. In 1998 the problems are aggravated by the severely dry climate as a consequence of El Nino phenomenon. Many forest lands in the country of about 129,600 acres were beyond control and caused invaluable losses of forest lands and wildlife. Management Disaster management system, by law, in Thailand followed the Civil Defence Act, 1979. The National Civil Defence Committee (NCDC) is government agency that is responsible for strategic duty for disaster management who formulate civil defence measures and policies . The NCDC is composed of 17 representatives from multi-ministries concerned and functional agencies, Director-General of The Department of Local Administration being the secretary of he committee by position. Functional agencies for civil defence are of three categories : 1. National level The national civil defence center is under responsible of the Ministry of Interior. 2. Regional level Four regional civil defence centers have been established to support manpower, equipment and tools as well as to provide technical assistance and training to local agencies under direction of the regional civil defence directors. 3. Local level There are five hierarchies of local level civil defence centers namely: provincial civil defence centers (75 ) , district civil defence centers (796), Bangkok civil defence centers and Pataya civil defence centers. The centers are established to deal with all kinds of disasters that occur in the provinces, districts, Bangkok and Pataya. Weblink :http://www.ardc.or.jp/countyreport/THA/THAeng98/index.html [map 2.5.1:Risk of land slide of Thailand]
2.6 > 2.
There is no clear boundary
between land use and land cover in Thailand. Both terms are used synonymously
eventhough they should be different in reality. The newest 1: 1,000,000
land use map was produced by Land Development Department in 1998 (Map
2.7.1). The units are Paddy field 13.78%, field crops 7.72 %,
perrenial 20.49 %, orchard 4.18 %, horticulture 2.41 %, swidden cultivation
3.28 %, pasture and farm house 2.67 %, aquaculture land 2.97 %, evergreen
forest 13.04 %, deciduous forest 11.41 %, forest plantation 3.05 %,
rangeland 2.63 %, wetland 2.91 %, mind & pit 1.78 %, urban and built-up
area 1.67 %, water body 4.47 % and others 1.55 % of the land area. [Map
2.7.1: Land use map of Thailand] 2.7 > 2.
Land use changes
have taken place from 1986 to 1998 through population pressure and
industrialization: urban areas have been increased from 2,351.97
km2 in 1986, compared to 2,575.97 km2 in 1990 and 8,569.02 km2 in
1998 while forest areas have been decreased from 185,518.2 km2 in
1986, compared to 176,478.3 km2 in 1990 and 141,106.6 km2 in 1998.
Changing in agricultural lands are not clearly observed.Table below
illustrated land use changes in Thailand from 1986 to 1998. [Table 2.8.1: Land use changes from 1986 - 1998 in Thailand] 2.8 > 2.
Total Production of Agriculture of major kinds (fishery, rubber and
rice) for the period of 1990-1999 shows an increasing trend. Major
agriculture production in Thailand as from 1994-1998 is illustrated
in (Figure 2.9.1). Currently, the agricultural
sector is focused on export. Being fishery producer which was 12.5
% of export earner instead of rice that earned only 8.7 % and rubber
earned 5.5 % in 1998. Other important commodities are cassava, sugar
cane and livestock products. [Table 2.9.1: Average production Value of economic crops and fisheries in Thailand (1990-1999)] [Figure 2.9.1: Food production in Thailand 1990-1999] [Figure
2.9.2: Productivity Trend of Major Crops 1990-1999] 2.9 > 2. 2.10 Environmental Impact of land uses
2.10 > 2. |
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3. Water Resources (AQUASTAT) 3.1 Hydrography 3. > top |
The government has set its policy to develop 50 % of the remaining rainwater, at present, only 40,000 million m.3 or 20 % has been developed by several government agencies. Therefore, there's still 100,000 m.3 water resources to be further developed for the country's usage. The Royal Irrigation Department has been entrusted with the duty to provide the water such as to store and conserve ,to regulate, to distribute, to release or allocate water for agriculture, energy, domestic consumption, industry and also including prevention of damage causing by water, and inland navigation within irrigation area. Web link http://www.rid.go.th/eng/index_eg.html 3.1 > 3. |
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4. Plant nutrient resources 4.1 Plant nutrient use and balance 4.2 Fertilizer Production and Cost
4. > top |
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4.1 Plant nutrient use and balance Naturally, not only soil parent materials produce low plant nutrients but also because of high leaching by rain erosion in tropical circumstances. Most of the soils in Thailand therefore have rather low fertility. Soils supporting undisturbed tropical forests are characterized by low soil bulk density and high macro-porosity, partly due to the relatively high activity of the soil fauna. Once the forest cover is removed, however, the soil characteristics begin to change Their bulk density increases in the wake of deforestation and cultivation, as do a number of their other physical and chemical properties. Norman (1984) compared the physical properties of new and old development areas and showed a gradual process of change. The total infiltration capacity of soils in the older development areas had fallen by 62 percent, when compared with the original forest values. The soil chemistry had also changed. The organic carbon content of tire soils in tire older areas had dropped by 18 percent, while their calcium, magnesium and potassium tended to be lower, too. (IFPRI, 1996). Kanchanakool (2000)
had studied levels of soil fertility at 0-25 and 25-50 centimeters
depth in Thailand and it was concluded that: low fertility soils in
the north eastern part of Thailand are from sandstone origin and composed
of kaolinite, the low activity clay. Most of the low fertility soils
occur in the southern part of Thailand , a region of high intensity
and long period precipitation that induce fast weathering process
and leaching of parent materials (Clay mineral are found to be kaolinte,
gibbsite and illite ). Soils in the cold hilly northern part vary
as their bed rocks and clay minerals: higher level fertility soils
are found in some parts of the region. Higher level fertility soils
are also found in the central plain, especially near the east coast
where most of the soils are alluvial (fresh water deposit, brackish
water deposit and marine deposit). (Table 4.1.1
and Table 4.1.2) [Figure 4.1.1: Chemical Fertilizer used in Thailand (1986-1995) ] [Table 4.1.1: Soil Fertility level of top soil (0-25 cm.) and sub- soil (25-50 cm) in Thailand. [Table 4.1.2: Fertility Level from Soil Analysis by LDD and USDA standard] [Table 4.1.3: Chemical fertilizer used in Thailand (1986-1995)] [Table 4.1.4: Consumption of fertilizer for paddy 1986-1995] [Map 4.1.1:
Soil Fertility Map of Thailand] 4.1 > 4.
Most of chemical fertilizers used in Thailand are imported. OAE reported that in 2000 that Thailand imported 97,524 metric tons of Ammonum sulphate, 67,525 metric ton of Urea, 97,158 metric ton of Potassium chloride , 225,254 metric ton of 16-20-0 (N-P2O5-K2O), 32,870 metric ton of 16-16-8 (N-P2O5-K2O), 199,785 metric ton of 15-15-15 (N-P2O5-K2O) and 37,532 metric ton of 13-13-21 (N-P2O5-K2O) respectively (Figure 4.2.1). [Figure 4.2.1: Chemical Fertilizer Imported in 2000 ] 4.2> 4. |
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5. Hot spots 5.0 Overview: constraints to sustainable agriculture 5.3 Plant Nutrition-related constraints 5. > top |
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Salinization is affecting irrigated lands in moderately populated areas while nutrient mining and erosion are degrading sandy soils in northern Thailand and remote upland areas in the regions. Water erosion is the major process, especially where lands have steep slope and rainfall is high. Acid and acid sulphate soils cover some parts of central plain and east coast while organic soils occurs mostly in southern part. Deforestation and improper agricultural practices are major causes of degradation in Thailand. 5.0 > 5.
5.1 Land -related
constraints to sustainable agriculture Special problem soils The expansion of cultivated land
is likely to be limited due to the fact that land suitable for agriculture
is almost completely utilized. Existing cultivable and abandoned lands
will need to be developed to meet the future land requirements. There
are about 31,000,000 hectares classified as special problem soils
(LDD, 2001) (Figure 5.1.1) (Map
5.1.1)They are organic soils,salt affected soils (saline soils),
deep sandy textured soils, coarse loamy textured soils, acid sulfate
soils, shallow soils, and slope complex soils. Some of these problem
soils have already been used, including salt affected soils, acid
sulfate soils and shallow soils, but their productivity is very low. With regard to research work on these
special problem soils, only salt affected soils and acid sulfate soils
have been intensively covered to date. In order to develop these areas
for better utilization, the research program on each type of soil
should be accelerated. Salt affected soils may be found
in certain southern coastal areas,but these tend to be caused by seawater
flooding rather than by irrigation. The problem of salt affected soils
is worst in the Northeast, where agricultural land have been affected
in varying degrees . Of these, some 350 square kilometers are "severely"
affected, with salt crust coverage of 50 percent or more . About two-thirds of the salt affected
soils can still produce crop yield of salt tolerant species, like
rice, at a depressed level-about half the normal average. Apart from the linkage between irrigation,
poor drainage and salinization, there are possibly other factors.
Dammed up reservoirs raise the water table downstream where deeper
saline layers exist, and flush up the salt into the surface soils.
Salt production, a widespread economic activity of the area, could
have aggravated the problem through its considerable wastewater discharge.
Deforestation of the watershed is suspected of being linked to the
leaching rate of salt from upland deposits.Whatever are the cause(s)
of salinization for any specific area, there is real need for a very
careful consideration of any irrigation proposal with regard to the
land suitability and to adequate drainage investment. Otherwise the
salt burden will be cumulative from thepresent generation to the next. Land Degradation and Water Erosion There is evidence both of degradation
and erosion of Thai soils. The degradation of soils can be caused
by physical, chemical,biological, socioeconomic and institutional
factors. In isolation or in combination, directly or indirectly, such
factors alter the soil's potential for sustained or increased agricultural
production. - Soil Erosion Soil erosion in Thailand , in fact,
is one of the most pressing natural resource problems and is influenced
most probabbly by water . A theoretical study by Srikhajon, et al.
(1980), indicated that about 171,200 square kilometers nationwide
suffer from a medium or high degree of soil erosion, particularly
upland areas where slopes are greater than 5 percent. Soil erosion has been increasing from 18 million ha
in the year 1981 to 22 million ha in the year 1991 (ASOCON, 1998). Land Development Department had mapped
soil erosion of Thailand in 1999, based on General Soil Map , Land
Use/Land Cover Map, Geological Map and Univesal Soil Loss Equation
(USLE). It was concluded that in the lowland and/or less than 35%
slope: 66 % of the whole area are low eroded (12.5-32 ton/ha/yr of
sediment) , 3 % are moderately eroded (32-95 ton/ha/yr) , 0.3 % are
severe eroded ( 95-125 ton/ha/yr) and 0.8 % are very severe eroded
(>125 ton/ha/yr). In high land and/or more than 35% slope: 21.3
% are low eroded, 4. 5 % are moderately eroded, 0.8 % are severe and
3.3 % are very severe eroded. (LDD,2000) (Map
5.1.2) - Land Degradation Moncharoen, P. et. al.(1999) (Table
5.1.1)(Map 5.1.3)had estimated of vulnerability
to desertification empirically by applying general soil map of Thailand
that was combined with climatic and land use data to evaluate important
land-related constraints for agriculture. The initial estimates suggest
that about 75 % of the country is vulnerable. As agriculture is largely
in the hands of the rural poor' these lands are subject increasingly
to land degradation. The sloping land, which form about 30% of the
country, are particularly vulnerable as they are increasingly being
deforested and subject to shifting cultivation. Improper use of Land Resources It has been found that a agricultural
land has been misused i.e. cultivation of paddy and growing of upland
crops on unsuitable soils, encroachment and destruction of forests
on steep slopes, especially those that exceed 35 percent. It was also found that the total such an nationwide
covers 6319 square kilometers, of which 3033 square kilometers are
in the North which most of the encroachment is for cultivating upland
crops without any soil and water conservation practices, thus creating
severe erosion problems. The RFD (1984) reported that about 15,040
square kilometers of watershed area has been encroached. Environmental Issues Agrochemical pollution has increased in periurban
areas around Bangkok . Devegetation of mangrovehd been observed
from the period of 1961 to 1996 and was concluded that more than 200,000
hectares was reduced. (Table 5.1.2) [Figure
5.1.1: Extent of problem soils in Thailand] 5.1> 5. 5.2 Water related constraints to sustainable agriculture Conflict over water
resources is expected in the country in areas of high population density,
with particular concerns about pollution and irregular provision.
Coastal areas and deltas may deteriorate due to sedimentation loads
and pollution (IFPRI, 1996). The effects of siltation from soil erosion
on dams and from sedimentation along water courses result in a sediment
load at the mouth of the Chao Phraya River of about 104 tons per square
kilometer. This represents 11 million tons, or about 8.5 million cubic
meters of sediment . 5.2> 5. 5.3 Plant Nutrition-related constraints see plant nutrient resources 5.3> 5. |
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6. Bright spots 6.0 Overview: society's response to ameliorate the situation 6.1 Land-related response indicators 6.2 Water-related response indicators 6.3 Plant Nutrition-related response indicators 6. > top |
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6.0 Overview: society's response to ameliorate the situation The royal speech of His Majesty King Bhumibol Adulyadej giving to Thai people in his birthday one year. "What others may say does not matter, whether they say that Thailand is old - fashioned or that we are out - dated. Anyhow, we have enough to live on and to live for, and this should be the wish and determination of all of us to see self - sufficiency in this country. It is not that we will attain supreme prosperity, but we will have a sustainable and peaceful country. If we keep this sustainability, we already can be considered the top in comparison with other countries beset as they are by crises and decline due to greed and rivalry for power, economic and industrial progress and in matters of ideology. So, for me, it will prove to be a birthday present of lasting value and benefit if each of you, with your ideas and power of persuasion, enjoin on others who also have the same intentions, the determination to preserve the community so that we are able to enjoy this reasonable way of life - and I stress the reasonable, sustainable, and peaceful conditions - defending ourselves against anyone who may want to rob us of our innate qualities" suggests Thai people to sustain their land and live by sufficiency economy. Most of the bright spots existing in Thailand have been originated by him through government sectors concern and let the projects under Golden Jubilee Network be the prototypes for all land and water resources development. See http://www.kanchanapisek.or.th/index.en.html 6.0 > 6. 6.1 Land-related response indicators
A law on Land Development was enacted by His Majesty
King Bhumibol Adulyadej, by and with the advice and consent of the
National Assembly in 1983. Through NAREBI the Ministry of Agriculture and cooperatives
(MOAC)is seeking to develop innovative approaches to addressing crucial
emerging issues related to environmental protection and sustainable
development in Thailand and the ASEAN region. Operating through NAREBI,
the Ministry will mobilize the highest quality human resources within
each of the Ministry 's line agencies to tackle difficult environmental
unit, no matter how well-endowed, can hope to deal with all the serious
environmental issues that many developing nations confront on the
threshold of the 21st century. NAREBI seeks to be the bridge that
will facilitated and public / private / non-governmental dialogue
on the key environmental issues that affect the lives of the peoples
of Thailand and Southeast Asia. With agriculture as the principle
occupation of most peoples of the region, the need for sustainable
management systems for natural resources and environmental protection
is crucial. NAREBI will coordinate among its line agencies and with
other Thai Government ministries , as well as with non-government
, community-based organizations, and the private sector, to ensure
the effective implementation of resources and environmental management
policies. Through the organization of forums for public participation
and exchange, NAREBI will foster mechanisms for dialogue among key
stakeholders in the environment and natural resources sectors. Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives' (MOAC)
policy on Sustainable Agriculture in accordance with the objective
for restructuring sustainable agriculture in the 8th National Plan
(1997 - 2001), at least 20% of agricultural land should be used for
sustainable agriculture. This will build opportunities for farmers
to have higher income by providing alternatives: integrated agriculture,
ecological agriculture. NAREBI was assigned by MOAC to research and
create a strategy for sustainable agriculture development including
the training of local officers to follow the 8th Plan. The Sustainable
Agriculture strategy includes the adjustment away from mono cropping
as leads to a problem with market pricing . MOAC approach to Sustainable
Agriculture focus on the big picture to emphasize the link between
market prices and production to decrease the risk of small farmers
by supporting sustainable agriculture activities and conserving natural
resources. Salit Mungfangklang , a rainfed rice farmer in Nakorn
Ratch Sima Province, north eastern Thailand, who had suffered from
long draught period in 1994 joined The New Theory Project (Figure
6.1.5.1 ) in 1996. He began his new life by dividing his own land
of 19 rai (1 hectare is 6.25 rai) into 5 parts: paddy (8 rai), tree
crops (3.5 rai), cash crops (2 rai), farm pond with fish (4.5 rai),
home and homestead garden with poultry (1 rai). (Figure
6.1.5.2 )From 1999, he has his own irrigation system through out
the year for his continuous cropping activities. At present he can
get at least 45,000 baht (1 US$ = 45 baht) benefit excluding fish
and tree crops in one year. He have tried to sustain his land by reducing
chemical substances application by applying organic farming system.
6.1 > 6.
His Majesty The King has devoted himself to water
resource development in order to help farmers have sufficient water
for cultivation. His efforts have contributed to greater productivity
were so outstanding that Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations presented him with the AGRICOLA Medal, being the first
king in the world who promote water conservation to increase and saveguard
food production. Royal Irrigation Department under Chaipattana Foundation
has its responsibility to provide and conserving water for cultivation.
6.2 > 6. 6.3
Plant Nutrition-related response indicators
Standards for Organic Crop Production in Thailand
were established in 2000, as guidelines for organic crop production
in compliance with international standards. The organic crop production
standards were initiated and prepared by three organizations, namely:
Thailand institute for Scientific and Technological Research, Department
of Export Promotion, Ministry of Commerce, and Ministry of Agriculture
and Cooperatives. 6.3 > 6.
6.4 > 6. |
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7. Challenges and viewpoints |
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Agriculture policy of the Royal Thai Government
delivered to the National Assembly by H.E. Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra
on Monday, 26 February 2001 Part 1: Revival and Strengthening of Farmers
The government's urgent policies will be under financial support
of Bank of Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives (BAAC).
The Ninth National Economic and Social Development Plan
(2002-2006) adopts the philosophy of sufficiency economy
bestowed by His Majesty the KingO to his subjects as the
guiding principle of national development and management.
The philosophy of sufficiency economy, based on adherence
to the middle path, is advocated to (a) overcome the current
economic crisis that was brought about by unexpected change under
conditions of rapid globalization, and (b) achieve sustainable
development (NESDB,2002). The philosophy can be summarized as follows:
"Sufficiency economy" is a philosophy that stresses the middle path
as the overriding principle for appropriate conduct and way of life
of the entire populace. It applies to conduct and way of life at individual,
family, and community levels. At the national level, the philosophy
is consistent with a balanced development strategy that would reduce
the vulnerability of the nation to shocks and excesses that may arise
as a result of globalization. "Sufficiency" means moderation and due
consideration in all modes of conduct, and incorporates the need for
sufficient protection from internal and external shocks. To achieve
this, the prudent application of knowledge is essential. In particular,
great care is needed in the application of theories and technical know-how
and in planning and implementation. At the same time, it is essential
to strengthen the moral fibre of the nation so that everyone, particularly
public officials, academics, business people, and financiers adhere
first and foremost to the principles of honesty and integrity. A balanced
approach combining patience, perseverance, diligence, wisdom, and prudence
is indispensable to cope appropriately with critical challenges arising
from extensive and rapid socio-economic, environmental, and cultural
change occurring as a result of globalization. 7. > top |
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8. References and related internet links 8.1 References 8. > top |
|
ASOCON, The Tenth ASOCON Consultative Board Meeting, Xi'an, China,
September 14-18, 1998 Changprai,C. Soil of Thailand. Proceeding of the Forth International
Forum of Soil Taxonomy and Agrotaxonomy Transfer, Land Development
Department, Bangkok, Thailand. P. 29-50. 1983. Department of Agriculture (DOA), Standard for Organic Crop Production
in Thailand. Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. 20p. 2000. Department of Agricultural Extension, Mixed Farming Follow New
Theory , Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.87 p. 1999 (in
Thai). Dudal, R. and Moorman, F.R. "Major Soils of Southeast Asia:
Their Characteristics, Distribution and Agricultural Potential."
Journal of Tropical Geography. Vol. 18 p. 54-80. 1964. IFPRI, Land Degradation in the Developing World: Implications for
Food, Agriculture, and the Environment to 2020, International Food
Policy Research Institute, Washington, D.C. . U.S.A. 36 p. 1996. Kanchanakool, N. Soil Fertility Level in Thailand . Soil Analysis
Division, Land Development Department, Bangkok, Thailand. 49 p.
2000 (in Thai). Land Development Department (LDD), Land Development Act. B.E. 2526,
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. 8 p. 1984. Land Development Department, Soil Erosion in Thailand . Bangkok,
Thailand.39p. 2000 (in Thai). Land Development Regional office 12, New Theory in Land Development
Region 12 (in Thai), Land Development Department (leaflet), Bangkok,
Thailand. 1998. Office of Agricultural Economics, Agricultural Statistics of Thailand,
Crop Year 1996/97, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Bangkok,
Thailand, 1998 . Office of Agricultural Economics, Agricultural Statistics of Thailand,
Crop Year 1997/98, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Bangkok,
Thailand, 1999. Panichapong, S. and Hemsrichart, P. Agro- climatological Zone
of Thailand. Land Development Department, Bangkok, Thailand. 62
p. 1982. Moncharoen, P., T. Vearasilp, K. Hoontrakul and H.Eswaran., Desertification
in Thailand. Paper Presented in The 10 ISCO Conference, 23-28 May
1999, Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana, U.S.A. 1999. Moorman, F.R. and Rojanasoonthorn, S. Soils of Thailand. SSR. No.
72. Land Development Department, Bangkok, Thailand. 1968. Norman, B.W., Report on the Comparison of New and Old Development
Areas. Thai - Australian - World Bank Land Development Project,
Chiang Mai, Thailand. 1984. Srikhajon, M. and S. Somrang, Soil Erosion in Thailand. Land Development
Department, Bangkok, Thailand. 1980. The Mekong River Commission Secretariat and LDD, Proceeding of
National Wetland Classification Workshop in Thailand. October 17-18,
2000. Sofitel Hotel, Khon Kaen, Thailand. 2000. RFD, Forestry Statistic of Thailand 1984. Planning Division, Royal
Forest Department, Bangkok, Thailand.1984. USDA, Soil Survey Mannual. Agricultural Handbook No. 18, Warshington
D.C., U.S.A. 1951. 8.1 > 8. 8.2 Related internet link
http://www.dola.go.th
http://ldd.go.th Others 8.2>
8.
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